The Epistle of James: Christian Faith and Maturity Model

Introduction
As one of the first writings of the New Testament, James reflects the teachings of Jesus as the early church begins its transition from Judaism to Christianity. Considered a General Epistle, James certainly is not a lengthy production, but is weighty in its content for Jewish Christians of the first century and today’s followers of Jesus Christ. Its focus drives home the points of trial, temptation, humility, faith, prayer, and patience. An apparent contradiction occurs with regard to salvation through faith that Paul presents in Romans 3:28 and works justification and not by faith alone found in James 2:24. However, if James is taken in context as reference to commitment to Christ, his writing stands firm that faith must be supported by works (Elwell and Yarbrough 353). Given the author and his target audience we find that James writes about an important part of the Christian life. In his study guide, “James Guidelines for a Happy Christian Life,” John MacArthur sums up James with this, “If a person’s faith is genuine, it will prove itself during times of trouble, whatever the nature or source of the trouble may be” (MacArthur 3).

Literary Context
As an epistle (letter), James is addressed to the twelve tribes scattered among the nations known as the Diaspora (Browning 99-100). This letter was not directed at a particular person or church but to the Jewish Christian community outside of Palestine (Elwell and Yarbrough 354). James begins immediately with the good and proper response of a believer when faced with trials. Encouraging his readers to consider trials as “pure joy,” James tells us that the testing of our faith develops perseverance (James 1:2-3). In referring to these trials, John Phillips writes in his commentary that “They are for our enlargement” (Phillips 28).

Just five chapters in length and reflective of the book of Proverbs in its structure, James is written in a style that is familiar to his readers (Elwell and Yarbrough 353, 356). Using prophecy and wisdom elements reminiscent of the Old Testament, James provides reassurance and encouragement at a time of persecution and martyrdom following Stephen’s death at the hands of the same men that crucified Christ (Elwell and Yarbrough 354).

Martin Luther referred to James as an epistle of straw, presumably in response to whether its inclusion in canonical scriptures is valid and to fight the assertions that through it one could purchase their way to salvation (Elwell and Yarbrough 353). James appears to be an exposition of the Sermon on the Mount. (Phillips 10) Although not directed to a specific recipient James is clearly written from one author to a clearly intended audience and therefore is considered the genre of a letter.

Outline
I. Verification of Genuine Faith, Chapters 1-3
A. God Tests Faith by Trials, Chapter 1:1-12
(Twofold result: development of patience here, v. 3; reward hereafter, v .12)
B. God Does Not Test Faith with Evil, Chapter 1:13-21
(Evil comes from within-the flesh, v. 14)
C. God Tests Faith by THE WORD, Not by Man’s Words, Chapter 1:22-27
(Doing, not doctrine, is the final test of faith; knowing is not enough.)
D. God Tests Faith by Attitude and Action in Respect of Persons, Chapter 2:1-13
E. God Tests Faith by Good Works, Chapter 2:14-26
(Abraham is an illustration of works, v. 21.)
F. God Tests Faith by the Tongue, Chapter 3
(“What is in the well of the heart will come up through the bucket of the mouth.”)

II. Vacuity and Vapidness of Worldliness, Chapter 4
(Worldliness is identified with fighting and the spirit of dissension, vv. 1-2)

III. Vexation of the Rich; Value of the Imminent Coming of Christ, Chapter 5
(The soon coming of Christ produces patience, vv. 7-8, and prayer, vv. 13-18.)
A. Riches Are a Care (Rich Warned), Chapter 5:1-6
B. The Coming of Christ Is a Comfort, Chapter 5:7-12
C. The Prayer of the Righteous Is a Power, Chapter 5:13-20 (McGee 12)

Historical Context
There is some speculation that the James that is addressing this epistle is not James, the brother of Jesus. None of this speculation stands up when consideration is given to the other likely candidates of which there are three. James, the lessor, said to be the son of Alphaeus is sometimes considered to be the author. However upon closer inspection most scholars do not give this serious credibility (MacArthur 1). James, Son of Zebedee is another possible author however considering the likely time period of the letter it is presumed that this James was martyred before authorship. (1) James, the father of Jude (or Judas, not Iscariot) to whom little attention is given as author due to limited further mention in other New Testament writings. (1) This brings us back to James, the brother (or half-brother) of Jesus. This James was known as “the Just” or “the Righteous” to both Christian and non-Christian. Fourth Century Christian Historian Eusebius said that this was because James was scrupulous about observing Jewish Law (LifeChange 9-10). Supporting evidence suggests that the Greek language used by the author of James and that of James’ speech in Acts 15 supports his identification (Constable 1). It is this James, the brother of Jesus that is the author of this epistle.

Some have cast doubt on the author and his relationship to Jesus by establishing views that raise question regarding the meaning in scripture of “brethren” when referring to Jesus and his male siblings. The Hieronymian view purports that the James in question is not Jesus brother but instead his cousin, a son of Mary and Alpheaus. The Epiphanian view suggests that Jesus brothers and sisters were Joseph’s from a previous marriage. And finally the Helvidian view holds that James was a blood relative and in fact the brother (or half brother) of Jesus. This view is supported by the Gospels. In Luke 2:7 it says in reference to Jesus, “and she gave birth to her firstborn, a son.” John Phillips points out the word used here is prōtotokos or “firstborn” which is never used of an only son (Phillips 22). Therefore since Jesus was the firstborn of Mary and not the only born, Jesus had siblings and scripture tells us that among them was James.

As stated above, James is written to a widely distributed audience throughout the Roman Empire. The word that the author uses is Diaspora which refers to the Jewish Christians or the twelve tribes scattered abroad, those who were living outside Palestine (Constable 6). They were very likely members of the Jerusalem church who had left Jerusalem shortly after Stephen's martyrdom (Acts 8:1-3) (MacArthur 2). There are several elements that make this particular audience likely. James uses a natural, casual reference to Old Testament Law. He also uses synagogue when referring to a place of meeting. Additionally, throughout his writing James uses numerous Jewish and Old Testament metaphors (Elwell and Yarbrough 354).

James was written from Jerusalem as early as A.D. 40; however some scholars suggest a date as late as A.D. 60. It has been asserted that because James did not mention the Jerusalem council, which occurred in A.D. 50-51 that this epistle was likely to have been written between A.D. 44 and A.D. 50 (Philips 10). Traditionally, James is said to have been written in the middle or late 40’s and it is acceptable that A.D. 45-48 were probable years. Given the likely authorship of James, brother of Jesus, these dates seem most logical as it is reported by Josephus that James died in A.D. 62 (Phillips 24).

The author does not give a specific purpose for his writing, only to suggest that believers must have the proper perspective and response when facing trials and temptation. One comment worth special note was that James brings a Christian face to face with God the Judge with the purpose of showing that God’s people are to be submitting to God, selfless to others and show compassion (Elwell and Yarbrough 358). Dr. Thomas L. Constable noted the following as a leading theme in James, "The design of the Epistle is on the one hand to encourage those to whom it is addressed to bear their trials patiently and on the other hand to warn them against certain errors of doctrine and practice" (Constable 3). Any reader of James who professes to be a follower of Jesus Christ will observe these themes throughout and be convicted and encouraged.

Conclusion
James is a letter. However, as a letter it is not bound to a single person or entity but instead is given through divine inspiration to its universal readership. Although there can be cause for discussion regarding the faith verses works argument, the conscious observer need not look beyond the passages of James to uncover practical and applicable truths about a life of faith that reflects good works. James says, “In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead” (James 2:17 NIV). James calls us to action as believers and we find that if we are focused on this action there will be no room for the worldliness that he warns about in James 4:4. Our faith is not only justified but we are able to stand up against the trials and temptations of this world.

In knowing James as author we are given insight into human nature. James is the brother of Jesus and even in his close proximity he was late in accepting Jesus as Lord. This gives me a greater understanding of why it had taken me so long to accept Jesus by knowing that it is not the closeness relative to physical distance and time but closeness of heart. There is much to gain from James in the Christian maturing process and this process is enhanced when consideration is given to who, what, where, when, and why it was written.

The relative consistency in agreement regarding author, audience, and purpose allows us to be confident in its authenticity. James is a letter that I have taken to heart. Early in my Christian walk I was drawn to James 1:19-21 which says, “My dear brothers, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, for man's anger does not bring about the righteous life that God desires. Therefore, get rid of all moral filth and the evil that is so prevalent and humbly accept the word planted in you, which can save you.” This passage, standing alone, and through the grace of God have had a transforming effect on my life. Until now I did not have the full context of the entire work in mind. It was through this research that I am now able to better understand its application as I continue to mature as a Christian.

Works Cited

Browning, W. R. F. A Dictionary of the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996

Constable, Dr. Thomas L. Notes on James 2006 Edition. Garland, TX: Sonic Light, 2006

Elwell, Walter A., and Robert W. Yarbrough. Encountering the New Testament: a Historical and Theological Survey. 2nd. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005.

LifeChange Series, Lee-Thorp, Karen, ed. A NavPress Bible study on the book of James, Colorado Springs, CO: NAVPRESS, 1988

MacArthur Jr., John F. MacArthur Bible Studies, James Guidelines for a Happy Christian Life. Nashville, TN: Nelson Impact, 2006

McGee, J. Vernon. The Epistles. James Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1991 (1975)

Philips, John. Exploring the Epistle of James: An Expository Commentary Grand Rapid, MI: Kregal Publications, 2004

Be still...

When I approach the thought spending a time of reconnection with God I considered when might be the best. I decided that I would do it early in the morning and settled on 6 A. M. My time began with asking God to be with me and speak to me. At first my thoughts wandered from topic to topic, but after a few minutes I started to focus on the simple yet powerful idea that I can know God. In considering how I can know Him I thought of His Word and command to “Be still, and know that I am God” from Psalm 46. An image of Jesus entered my mind and I was reminded of the cross and the security I have in His saving grace. I felt calm peace in knowing that I have a relationship and identity with God.

As my time came to a close I began to have this combined sense of peace and frustration. The thoughts the day that lay ahead, the things I must accomplish, and the urgency I feel to move from one task to the next flooded in and disrupted my time with God. It was as if I were between two worlds, one of security and serenity and one of frantic frustration. Thinking back on my time with God I am thankful to have had a brief moment where nothing else existed but God and me. In a relatively short period God rekindled the hope and freedom and protection that I have in Him and the confidence that I can return there anytime I choose.

Credit Use, Misuse, and Abuse (originally written in July 2007)

Introduction

An economy based on unmanageable consumer debt is like a house built on sand. While the use of credit enables goods and services to move more freely through the market, the risk at which they are acquired can have a lasting effect on the consumer. From even a cursory look into the credit use trends in the United States it becomes clear that without good information, education, and planning, the fall from use to abuse can be quick and devastating.

This article will highlight how consumers fail to see the dangers of falling into the trap of credit misuse or abuse, particularly with credit card companies and mortgage lenders. For the purpose of simplicity, the term “lender” will be used as a general reference for credit card companies or mortgage lenders unless the specific reference is required.

Free to Lend, Free to Borrow

Prior to the 1978 Marquette Decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, credit cards were limited mostly to retail and oil companies. In their ruling, the Supreme Court effectively freed the banks to charge interest rates more suitable for generating revenue and realizing profits that were previously controlled through regulations. Because the decision allowed banks to operate under the laws from the state in which they reside, banks found locations that enabled them to offer consumers credit cards with little or no limits on interest rates and fees.

Since the 1980’s, credit cards and their use have grown exponentially. Subsequently, credit card debt has soared to seemingly uncontrollable levels. With over 1.5 billion credit cards in circulation in the U.S. and the increase in Internet purchases as well as the ease of use within retail and fast food industries, it is obvious that what was once viewed as a privileged way of using credit has become part of the very fabric that makes up a significant portion of the U.S. and global economies.

The creativity upon which lenders provide credit is not limited to credit card companies. Mortgage lenders have also created ways to entice, some would say entrap borrowers into large loans through offering initial low rates and payments. However, many find that when the introductory period is over they are not able to make the payments and ultimately the results are defaults and foreclosures.

State of the Usage

The increase in credit card use can be attributed to some very fundamental elements of human nature. In the United States, we find that the culture of the last 20 to 30 years has become one that feeds the desires to fulfill the “American Dream” of providing for our families, but often allows us to overextend our financial means. Rick Salmeron, a financial planner, was quoted in an article from The Dallas Morning News on personal finance mistakes as saying, “We make our decisions on an emotional basis, all of us.” The credit card industry knows this all too well and takes every advantage to provide what would appear to be a fair and equitable vehicle for obtaining the things consumers want. Unfortunately, for many consumers the freedom and availability of credit cards has turned what often begins as a fair and equitable situation into a nightmarish state of despair.

Also noted in the article from The Dallas Morning News, the top two mistakes people make with their personal finances are “Not having a goal and a plan for how to achieve it” and “Not being willing to change your behavior so you can get to where you want to be.” It is likely that for many people setting goals and knowing what to do to achieve them is more about training and experience. Most people will follow a pattern or a model passed down to them from their parents. Unique to credit card use is that many card holders today did not have a model to observe and subsequently follow. The credit card industry, in its current form, is still only moving through its second or third generation of consumers.

As the prevalence of credit card use increases, the amount of consumer debt increases. As a rule, the more credit that is available, the more consumers will spend. Without prejudice, credit card companies issue cards at a staggering rate. Due to the ease of access and approval, these cards would often end up in the hands of consumers with little or no education regarding revolving credit accounts. It would appear that there is a general lack of responsible financial management. This contributes to the slide from credit use to abuse.

Who’s Responsible?

Robert Scott noted in the Journal of Economic Issues that for the purpose of his analysis of credit card use and abuse, there were three groups responsible for credit card debt problems: credit card companies, consumers, and the government. While it is clear to see that the tactics used by credit card companies can be viewed as underhanded and unfair, and the government has done little to provide regulations that protect consumers from these companies, of the three groups identified, the responsibility should be placed squarely on the shoulders of the consumers. It is true that regulations can help to ensure fair commerce, but without good information and training consumers will likely encounter trouble regardless of the law.

In an article in The Washington Post, Michelle Singletary draws our attention to the Consumer Credit Counseling Service in Atlanta. During the week of July 4, 2007, this particular office encouraged people to declare their independence from credit card debt and warned that “Using credit cards for purchases can put you at risk, especially if you aren’t disciplined.” The Credit Counseling Service seems to understand and support the idea that an educated and informed consumer is one that knows good budgeting and debt management.

Does Counseling Help?

In a study published in June 2007, in the Journal of Consumer Affairs on the impact of credit counseling, several notable results were uncovered and presented. This study found that one-on-one counseling was associated with improvement in borrower credit profiles over an extended period. Credit counseling was also associated with substantial reduction in total debt and active account management. Lastly, it was stated that those who had the least ability to handle credit realized the greatest benefit from the counseling experience.

Common sense tells us that the more a person knows about a given topic the more prepared they will be when faced with choices related to that topic. Generally, counseling does help but unfortunately those who need it often do not receive it until after they encounter problems. It is clear that borrowers who have more information and education in advance are better equipped to manage their credit accounts and avoid late fees, charges, and repayment issues.

Counseling for consumers in trouble with credit debt is not the only place where efforts and responsibility should be applied. While consumers ultimately improved their overall understanding of credit use and are likely to avoid issues after receiving counseling, it becomes obvious that the other groups involved in credit use would benefit from better education. For instance, if lenders were active in providing help for those customers in a situation where repayment is difficult they would likely secure long-term business in other products and services areas. Furthermore, if lenders returned to a more stringent approval process, one that includes financial and credit use advice, they would realize a more sustainable business and revenue stream. Additionally, the government would also benefit from an improved understanding of the overall impact to the U.S. and world economies that consumer credit card debt has. This is not to suggest that regulation will solve all issues but instead provide guidelines for the purpose of minimizing the costs of bankruptcy litigation and reliance on government support.

Conclusion

Consumers and the economy as a whole will be better served when the parties involved are properly prepared to handle both sides of the lending process. Creditors will experience a more measureable and sustainable business model over a longer period of time. Today, lenders’ revenue and profit sometimes come at the expense of consumer’s inability to manage their accounts. Eventually this will catch up with these companies in one form or another. Either consumers will rebel against the companies that take advantage of them or the government will implement and enforce regulations that ultimately limit long-term business opportunities.

Proper use of credit can be a powerful and freeing way to obtain the goods and services that consumer’s desire. If the U.S. economy is to maintain a strong growth position then all parties involved, consumers, lenders, and government, must work to address the misuse. Without a firm foundation of good information and education we will see an increasingly unstable economy.

On a personal note. I do not have or use credit cards. Just over a year ago my wife and I cut up the cards and paid off the accounts. We are currently working toward being totalling debt free. I do use debit cards which allows me the same freedoms of a credit card without the risk of debt. For me and my family, we will live within our means.

Joshua, his faith was famous.

Introduction

Joshua, son of Nun was one of the twelve spies sent by Moses into Canaan. He was only one of two to return from spying and to live to enter the promised land. He was an assistant to Moses from a very young age and the successor to Moses at a somewhat older age. The time spent with Moses allowed Joshua to be mentored. Joshua assumed command of Israel when he was 75 years old and he lead Israel into the land God has promised to their fathers. The Bible tells us that Joshua lived approximately 110 years (Joshua 24:29).

Originally called Hoshea (Numbers 13:16), Moses changed his name to Joshua. The Old Testament author does not give us specifics regarding why Moses changed Hoshea’s name to Joshua, but as we learn later in Joshua’s life his relationship with God reflects this new moniker. Hoshea means salvation, a name undoubtedly given to him in faith from his birth. Joshua means Yahweh saves; this name is fulfilled in God’s using of Joshua to deliver the Israelites to the promised land.

The purpose of this paper is to highlight what Joshua believes about God through what scripture tells us. This paper will also provide an overview of three main characteristics that demonstrate Joshua’s beliefs of faith, obedience, and leadership. Lastly, this paper will present what personal application I have found in the person of Joshua and his relationship with God.

Joshua puts his Faith in God

Joshua’s faith is observed in the story from the Book of Exodus of the twelve spies returning from Canaan where he along with Caleb had a “we can do it, with God” attitude. Joshua believes that God is faithful to those who are obedient to his commands. From the time that Joshua was one of twelve sent to spy on Canaan he was confident that God would keep his promises. “If the Lord is pleased with us, he will lead us into that land, a land flowing with milk and honey, and will give it to us. Only do not rebel against the Lord. And do not be afraid of the people of the land, because we will swallow them up. Their protection is gone, but the Lord is with us. Do not be afraid of them (Numbers 14:8-9).”

God’s promises were to deliver them to the promise land, give them victory over their enemies, and to provide for them along the way. We find out later in the story that Joshua’s faith was founded and confirmed in the statement, “So the Lord gave Israel all the land he had sworn to give their forefathers, and they took possession of it and settled there. The Lord gave them rest on every side, just as he had sworn to their forefathers. Not one of their enemies withstood them; the Lord handed all their enemies over to them. Not one of all the Lord's good promises to the house of Israel failed; everyone was fulfilled (Joshua 21:43-45).” Joshua not only was witness to the fulfillment of God’s promises to Israel, he was a key part of making it happen.

Joshua Obeys God

Joshua’s obedience is seen in his following God’s instructions throughout his life. One such example is the story of Achan and his disobedience found in chapter seven of Joshua. Achan’s sin had a negative effect on Israel in their military campaign against Ai. This battle ended in the Israelites fleeing and Joshua realizing that the Lord was not with them. God’s response to Joshua was to uncover the sin in a systematic process of breaking down every tribe, clan, and family, and to return Israel to a right standing with Himself.  Joshua followed God’s instructions to find the things that Achan had kept for himself. When the truth was discovered Joshua carried out God’s punishment.

As Achan’s story continues to unfold before all of Israel we see the seriousness of sin and how it affects the whole nation. Joshua believed that God would punish those who do not keep his commands. In this belief, Joshua places his trust in God and obeys his commands.

Joshua Leads by Following God

Leadership is a word that defines one attribute of the character of Joshua. The Bible tells us in Deuteronomy 34:9 that Joshua was “filled with the Spirit of Wisdom.” As General of the Israelite army, Joshua had God as Commander in Chief. We see Joshua’s approach to leadership demonstrated in the way he delivered God’s message to the Israelites.

His leadership style centers on seeking God’s counsel first and then acting on God’s instruction. Joshua believed God when He said, “Not one will be able to stand up against you all the days of your life. As I was with Moses, so I will be with you; I will never leave you nor forsake you.” (Joshua 1:5). Joshua knew that if he obeyed God’s commands and followed his instructions Israel would reach the land and all that it contained, that God had committed. Dr. Constable said in his Notes on Joshua, 2005 Edition; “Joshua's responsibility included unswerving obedience to the Mosaic Law. This would be the key to his success. Knowing the law was only the first step. Practicing it was what would make Joshua effective (cf. Deut. 5:32-33) (7).”

It would have been difficult for Joshua to fail as a leader with God guiding him. Joshua’s leadership was so effective that the Bible gives us this summary, “Israel served the Lord throughout the lifetime of Joshua and of the elders who outlived him and who had experienced everything the Lord had done for Israel (Joshua 24:31).”

Personal Application

Hanging on our family room wall is a wood plaque that says, “As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord (Joshua 24:15).” When I read that passage I think of it as a reflection of the words hanging on my heart. For me Joshua represents the kind of man of God I want to be. A man filled with the Spirit, a faithful and obedient follower, and a strong, courageous leader.

Joshua’s example of modeling a God-Honoring life and leadership model as God’s deliverer of the Israelites to the promised land is reflective of how Jesus modeled the life He wants from me in glorifying Him as my deliverer to the eternal promise land.

In observing the life of Joshua I find that I am reminded that God wants me to love, obey, and worship Him, but that I cannot do this if I still have other gods in my life. Joshua said, "You are not able to serve the Lord. He is a holy God; he is a jealous God. He will not forgive your rebellion and your sins. If you forsake the Lord and serve foreign gods, he will turn and bring disaster on you and make an end of you, after he has been good to you." (Joshua 24:19-20). When I compare this to my own life I find that I often have other gods to occupy my time. These frequently come in the forms of greed and laziness through too much time spent on and with material possessions. I know in part through Joshua that I cannot be obedient to God if I am preoccupied by my earthly desires.

It is also through the life of Joshua that I learned the importance of having a good mentor. Joshua’s mentor was ultimately God. This played out through Moses while Joshua was his assistant and later directly with God as the commissioned leader over Israel. Although my struggles are not represented in military terms, they compare to Joshua in that they deal with people. Joshua was often faced with people who doubted or ignored God’s commands and as such he had to deal with and sometimes deliver the consequences of disobedience to God. As a husband, father, and leader both in church and in my career, there are times when I have to correct and instruct others. This is not always easy and it is even more difficult when I attempt to do things my way and do not seek Godly advice from more experienced and mature Christians, as well as through prayer and God’s Word.

Conclusion

Joshua shows us some key elements in life, how to approach battles and the belief that God will keep his promises. We read of Joshua, the wars he fought against the enemies of Israel. We also read how Joshua put his faith and trust in God to deliver His people to the promised land. It is in the person of Joshua that we learn about ourselves as we battle against the things in this world that prevent us from reaching the promises God has for us in His kingdom. We also learn from Joshua that it is in our faith and trust in God that we ultimately win these battles.  Because of Joshua’s faith, obedience, and leadership it is written, “So the Lord was with Joshua, and his fame spread throughout the land (Joshua 6:27).”

Venomous Snakes in Ohio

Introduction

Ohio has only three venomous snakes and two of them are found on the states endangered species list. Each of these snakes is a member of the Viperidae family commonly called pit vipers (HerpeScope). The Northern Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix mokeson), Eastern Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), and Eastern Massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) snakes are found in Ohio but often in limited areas.

This paper will provide a brief overview of how to identify a venomous snake, as well as some details of each of our Ohio vipers. This paper will also look at each snake highlighting where and how they live.

How To Know A Snake Is Dangerous

In order to gain an understanding of the venomous snakes that live in Ohio we must begin with knowing how to identify them as well as to differentiate them from non-venomous snakes. To do this we begin with general feature descriptions of both venomous and non-venomous snakes provided by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife.

Non-venomous snakes share some common attributes from head to tail. These include an oval head, round pupils, nostrils only (no pits), divided scales underside of their tail, and no rattles at the end of their tails. Venomous snakes, although sharing some general traits with non-venomous snakes, have distinct features that give us some warning to use caution. For instance a triangular head is likely the first noticeable appearance. Venomous snakes have pupils that are elliptical, nostrils as well as pits, and undivided scales on the underside of their tail. Lastly, with the exception of the copperhead, venomous snake’s tails end in a rattle (OHS).

Identifying each of Ohio’s venomous snakes begins by knowing generally where you might encounter them within the state. A more detailed description of their locations can be found later in this document, but for our immediate purposes we will provide an overview here. If you look at a map of the state of Ohio and draw a line from the upper northeast corner to the lower southwest corner you will have a basic idea of where to find these snakes. The upper portion of our map will belong to the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake. In the lower portion you will find the Northern Copperhead. Locating the Eastern Timber Rattlesnake is little more difficult, but in an oversimplified description you will find that the Timber Rattler located in the southern-central most part of the state and interestingly in a small area near western Lake Erie.

If you encounter one of these snakes, having a general description of their appearance will help you know how to avoid having an incident. The Massasauga has a stocky body and grows to about thirty inches in length. Its eyes have vertical pupils and its head is triangle shaped. Although some adults are completely black the Massasauga generally has dark rounded blotches against a gray or brownish gray background. You will also find that the Massasauga has a rattle on the end of its tail, however small it should be noticeable. As for the Timber Rattler, lengths are about fifty-four inches, although a maximum of seventy-four has been noted. Like the Massasauga its pupils are vertical and its head is triangular. Coloration for the Timber Rattler varies from yellow to brown with dark colored banding that is sometimes V-shaped. The tail is black and has a noticeable rattle. Finally, we have the Copperhead. The Copperhead’s body is stocky and reaches lengths of up to thirty-six inches. Colors of copper, orange, and pinkish can be found for the background with dark, chestnut colored bands on the body. The Copperhead does not have a rattle on its tail (OPLIN).

Where Can You Find These Snakes

The number of venomous snakes found in Ohio has been declining. Two of the three snakes mentioned here, the Massasauga and the Timber Rattler are on the Ohio Endangered Species list. This makes is it increasingly more difficult to locate them. Ohio’s venomous snakes are found in limited areas of the state, the Eastern Timber Rattlesnake and Eastern Massasauga these areas are diminishing even further.

The Eastern Massasauga snakes make their home in the northern portion of the state. It can be found habitats such as bogs, swamps and wet prairie areas. In the spring and autumn the Massasauga is considered to be active during the daytime (diurnal), however in the summer it becomes more active during twilight and even nocturnal.

The Eastern Timber Rattlesnake has a shrinking coverage area in Ohio. They only occur in about a handful of southern counties and interestingly on the western islands of Lake Erie, as well as the peninsulas of Catawba and Marblehead. No confirmed sightings have been made since the 1950’s (OPLIN). Ohio’s Timber Rattler finds habitat in remote, hilly wooded areas with rock outcrops. Like the Massasauga, the Timber Rattler is diurnal in the spring and fall but as summer heats up the Timber Rattler becomes nocturnal. In the winter season, it will hibernate often with other snake species.

The Northern Copperhead is most often found in the southern counties in the western half of the state and in all but the northern counties in the eastern half areas of the state. The Copperhead lives in various types of habitat like wooded areas, piles of rotting wood, as well as on farms and in towns and cities. Similar to the Massasauga and the Timber Rattlers, the Copperhead is diurnal in spring and fall, but is nocturnal during the summer (OPLIN).

How Do Snakes Locate Prey

As described in an article from The University of Georgia College of Agricultural on the copperhead, venomous snakes have heat sensitive pits that they use to locate their prey as well as guide their strike. This pit along with their sense of smell allows the snakes to find the envenomed prey (Mengak). The venomous snakes in Ohio are of pit viper family, Viperidae (Answers). We get this name from heat sensitive pit which allows them to locate prey, even at night. We learn from Ohio History Central Online that “Even in total darkness, the snake can find and accurately strike at prey that is only a fraction of a degree warmer than their surroundings. Studies have shown that a blindfolded snake can accurately follow prey up to 6 feet away (OHS).” Snakes are also sensitive to vibrations and this can be used to track the movements of potential meals.

Small mammals such as mice, voles, chipmunks, and even rabbits and squirrels are part of the diet of the Timber Rattler. For the Copperhead and Massasauga they will add to this list birds, other small snakes, frogs, toads, and salamanders to their diets. The Timber Rattler and the Copperhead like to eat during the day in the spring and fall and at night during the summer. The Massasauga feeds in early morning, late afternoon, or at night.

Once snakes locate their prey they use their venom to subdue it so they can kill and eat it. Venom is injected through the use of fangs located in the front of the upper jaw of the pit viper. After being injected the prey’s nervous system, tissue, blood or all three will be affected. The venomous saliva, known as hematoxic, which means is destroys tissue, also aids in the digestion process (OHS).

Breeding

Each of the three venomous snakes of Ohio are ovoviviparous (eggs develop in the body of the parent and hatch within or immediately after being expelled) (ODNR). The Massasauga has a short breeding period from April to May and will produce between two to nineteen young. The Timber Rattler breeds between August and April during which they have from five to seventeen offspring. The Copperhead has a split breeding season from August to October and then from February to April. Copperheads have three to ten live young.

According to research conducted in Kansas and noted by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, female Copperheads become sexually mature at three years of age. The Massasauga typically produces their first offspring between three and four years of age. The Timber Rattler does not become sexually mature until they are about nine or ten years of age. This is noted for the northern portions of their habitat range (ODNR).

What’s The Concern

When a species is at risk of becoming extinct we should become concerned. Whether seen or unseen each species lost effects the ecosystem. While some effects can be measured, others may take time before we realize the impact. Two of the three vipers of Ohio, the Massasauga and the Timber Rattler are on the states endangered species list and are protected under the law. The reasons for the loss in both the Massasauga and the Timber Rattler are focused on extensive farming and the destruction of habitats (OPLIN). One of the main issues is the general misunderstanding of snakes which leads to people destroying these snakes and their habitats.

From a management plan perspective the Ohio Division of Wildlife promotes legislation to protect the habitats of the Massasauga. Part of the plan is to identify areas of wetland and grasslands that have been reduced and provide information to the public to influence conservation of these areas. The state also has efforts to track sightings of Timber Rattlers in an effort to protect existing populations instead of attempting to increase them. The intention is that of recovery of the species in the state and the Division is focusing on education to dispel the many negative stereotypes about this and other snakes in Ohio (ODNR)

Conclusion

Before drafting this paper on the venomous snakes in Ohio, I really did not give this topic much thought. Researching the information about Ohio’s three vipers, the Copperhead, the Massasauga, and the Timber Rattler has raised my personal awareness of these snakes. I have found that having a better understanding of each of these snakes behaviors and habitats gives me a new found respect and concern for them.